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January 24, 2026

Family Health Determinants

Family Social Determinants of Health. Describe the SDOH that affect the family health status. What is the impact of these SDOH on the family? Discuss why these factors are prevalent for this family. Based on the information gathered through the family health assessment, recommend age-appropriate screenings for each family member. Provide support and rationale for your suggestions. Choose a health model to assist in creating a plan of action. Describe the model selected. Discuss the reasons why this health model is the best choice for this family. Provide rationale for your reasoning. Using the model, outline the steps for a family-centered health promotion. Include strategies for communication.

Introduction

The health and well-being of a family are influenced by various social determinants of health (SDOH). These factors encompass economic, social, and environmental conditions that shape an individual’s health status and access to healthcare services. In this paper, we will explore the SDOH affecting a specific family’s health status, analyze their impact, and recommend age-appropriate screenings for each family member. Furthermore, we will select a health model that aligns with the family’s needs and outline a family-centered health promotion plan for their overall well-being.

Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) Affecting the Family:

The SDOH that influence the family’s health status may include:

Socioeconomic Status

Income level, education, and employment opportunities can significantly impact access to healthcare and resources.

Neighborhood and Environment

Living conditions, access to healthy food, safe neighborhoods, and environmental factors can influence overall health.

Social Support

The presence of a strong social support network can positively impact mental and emotional health.

Healthcare Access

Availability and affordability of healthcare services play a crucial role in maintaining family health.

Impact of SDOH on the Family

The identified SDOH can have profound effects on the family:

Limited Resources

Families facing financial constraints may struggle to afford healthcare, medications, or nutritious food, leading to adverse health outcomes.

Stress and Mental Health

Living in challenging environments or lacking social support can contribute to stress and impact mental health for both parents and children.

Health Disparities

Disparities in healthcare access may result in delayed or inadequate medical attention, affecting early detection and prevention of illnesses.

Age-Appropriate Screenings and Recommendations

Based on the family health assessment, the following age-appropriate screenings are recommended:

Children

Routine well-child visits, developmental screenings, and age-appropriate vaccinations are essential to monitor growth and detect any developmental delays.

Adolescents

Regular physical exams, mental health screenings, and preventive health measures, such as immunizations and reproductive health counseling, are vital during adolescence.

Adults

Periodic health check-ups, screenings for chronic conditions (e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol levels), and cancer screenings (e.g., mammograms, Pap smears) are recommended for adults.

Seniors

Regular screenings for age-related health issues, such as osteoporosis, vision, and hearing, along with preventive services like flu vaccines, are essential for seniors.

Health Model -The Socio-Ecological Model (SEM)

The Socio-Ecological Model (SEM) is an effective framework for understanding health behavior and promoting well-being. This model recognizes the interaction between individuals and their environments, highlighting the influence of multiple layers of influence on health outcomes. Family Social Determinants of Health.

Rationale for Choosing the SEM

The SEM is the best choice for this family due to its holistic approach to health promotion. Considering the family’s diverse range of SDOH, the SEM allows us to address multiple factors affecting their health status and design interventions that encompass individual, interpersonal, community, and societal levels.

Steps for a Family-Centered Health Promotion

Using the SEM, the steps for a family-centered health promotion plan are as follows:

Individual Level

Identify each family member’s specific health needs and preferences through personalized health assessments.

Interpersonal Level

Encourage open communication and strengthen family bonds to provide emotional support and foster a healthy environment.

Community Level

Connect the family with local resources, support groups, and community health services to improve access to healthcare and social support.

Societal Level

Advocate for policies that address health disparities, improve healthcare access, and promote a healthier living environment for the entire community.

Strategies for Communication

Effective communication is crucial for a successful family-centered health promotion plan. Employ the following strategies:

Active Listening

Give each family member a chance to express their health concerns and preferences, valuing their input.

Empathy and Support

Show genuine care and understanding to foster trust and cooperation within the family.

Health Education

Provide age-appropriate health education materials and workshops to empower the family with knowledge to make informed health decisions.

Conclusion

Family Social Determinants of Health. Addressing the social determinants of health is essential for promoting the well-being of families. By identifying the factors influencing the family’s health status, recommending age-appropriate screenings, and using the Socio-Ecological Model as a guiding framework, we can create a comprehensive family-centered health promotion plan. Through effective communication and collaboration, this plan aims to enhance the family’s overall health and pave the way for a thriving and resilient future. Use APA referencing style.

Describe the SDOH that affect the family health status.,

What is the impact of these SDOH on the family?,

Discuss why these factors are prevalent for this family.,

Based on the information gathered through the family health assessment recommend age-appropriate screenings for each family member.,

Choose a health model to assist in creating a plan of action and using the model, outline the steps for a family-centered health promotion including strategies for communication.

January 24, 2026

Fraud Interview Analysis

By AssignmentHelp Blog

Fraud Interview Analysis

Introduction

Bernard Ebbers was a convicted fraudster, the cofounder and CEO of WorldCom. The company conceded to accounting misrepresentation of around four billion US dollars and filed for bankruptcy in July 2002 (Cernusca, 2007). The figure increased to eleven billion resulting in a series of investigations and litigations. Fraud examiners need excellent interviewing skills to obtain concessions and disclosures, mainly when dealing with difficult situations such as a defensive suspect such as Bernard Ebbers. He was on several occasions observed to pass the blame on to the subordinates. This paper will outline how I would prepare for the fraud interview with Bernard Ebbers and how I would begin.

Preparation for the Fraud Interview

The first phase in preparing for the interview is to make a list of objectives (Vinluan, 2015). Setting targets helps you shape your investigative interviews and puts things into perspective. These objectives may include collecting information about the facts, such as the duration of the fraud perpetrated, parties implicated, and their respective role in the company. The interview’s goals include establishing the allegation’s validity, adhering to legal requirements, and ensuring as much confidentiality as possible. Other objectives include protecting the reputation of Bernard Ebbers and WorldCom.

Fraud Interview. The first step in risk assessment is to identify the company’s primary concern. The company’s main issues are often related to its compliance program’s circumstances and elements (Albrecht et al., 2015). To keep the more thorough assessments in line, one must be aware of the company’s overall compliance concerns. Before the interview, I would obtain all the necessary information I know about Bernard Ebbers and his involvement in WorldCom’s day-to-day management as part of my homework in preparing for the interview. It would involve taking time to find out what happened, the uncovered facts about the fraud, privacy laws, and WorldCom’s concerns. For instance, I realized that WorldCom, a globally successful telecommunications corporation, tried to falsify approximately four billion US dollars in revenues on its earnings report in 2001 (Kennon, 2020). It accomplished this by tampering with its financial records, which affected its comprehensive income statement, statement of financial position, Form 10-K filing, and annual report.

Additionally, I would look into what the board of directors and the managers think of Bernard Ebbers. I realized that the company’s deceitful accounting results from the executives’ collaborated manipulations from my investigations. In summary, The CFO of WorldCom, Scott Sullivan, defrauded the company by spreading its operational expenses using a form of capital expense account called property accounts (Cernusca, 2007). By treating capital expenditures under the accrual accounting method, it supported the company to report the expenses in minor increments over time rather than disclosing them all at once to shareholders. According to Kennon (2020), WorldCom overstated earnings by three billion US dollars in 2001, reporting one and half billion US dollars profit rather than a loss. Various interviewing techniques are adopted for multiple tactics such as applying pressure legally, qualifying evidence, taking the notes without making the accused tense, and securing a written and undersigned admission (Albrecht et al., 2015). As observed in various fraud cases, evidence alone is not always conclusive for taking action against a crime. On several occasions, a confession is the only way to solve a financial crime.

Fraud Interview. Adopting the fraud triangle is a good technique for understanding the reasons behind an individual’s decision to commit fraud (Homer, 2019). It consists of rationalization, incentive, and opportunity, and it depicts the incidents that occur in the mind of a fraud examiner as they determine risk and make recommendations. Opportunity refers to the factors that make it possible to commit fraud. In WorldCom, avenues for committing fraud were many with ineffective internal controls, an unfavorable atmosphere by the company leadership, and deficient accounting standards. The term impetus is the pressure related to an individual’s attitude toward fraud (Homer, 2019). The weight to attain or exceed analysts and shareholder expectations in retaining or surging share prices led to Bernard Ebbers and WorldCom committing fraud. Major shareholders for the company are retirees who have invested in the dividend-paying stock.

As a fraud examiner, I would consider the possible motivations when examining proof of workplace fraud. The motive is the driving force behind an individual’s actions (Albrecht et al., 2015). However, the purpose should not be confused with intent, which refers to the suspect’s mental state when the act was committed. In contrast to intent, motive is not a required part of committing a crime. In most cases, the law disregards an individual’s motivation when determining guilt or innocence. In WorldCom and Bernard Ebbers’s case, the motive was to misrepresent facts so that investors get an appealing picture of the company’s financial health and economic reality (Cernusca, 2007). Notably, the motive is relevant for other reasons: it can help identify the perpetrator; it can also guide the interviewer to the correct rationalization; it can also implicate the suspect, and it can help ensure a successful prosecution.

Fraud Interview. Rationalization allows the interviewer to communicate to the offender as an adult, enabling the interviewer to use communication skills to establish rapport. Rationalizations imply the existence of a mentality, attitude, or collection of moral values that would allow executives to commit fraud (Albrecht et al., 2015). One might argue that learning a fraudster mindset is critical in playing mind games with them during an admissions interview. However, understanding how rationalization perpetuates deception as a fraud interviewer teaches you that you can’t judge people based on your guidelines because they don’t have them. Since white-collar fraudsters often do not believe they have committed any crime, it is essential to tailor interviews to their rationalizations (Vinluan, 2015). Refusal of decisions and responsibility is a crucial sign in a fraud investigation as the suspect usually projects rationalization outcomes, as was the case with Bernard Ebbers. The latter passed the blame on his subordinates.

Some of the questions I would ask Bernard Ebbers would include WorldCom model principles and financial interests and his feelings about the company’s stock valuation or WorldCom’s economic success, as these issues are likely to display frustration. Such frustration provides an incentive to probe for details, ultimately leading to Bernard Ebbers venting. As the interviewer, I would realize that I have the chance to change strategies to make the Bernard Ebbers feel justified for his conduct to obtain truthful responses and eventually a countersigned statement from him. The recommendation is that a fraud examiner uses non-consecutive questions about the fraud’s particulars to see if the answer is consistent (Vinluan, 2015). Similarly, the details involved in a fraud case can be confusing at times. To counteract this, I intend always to seek clarification from Bernard Ebbers. I’ll be able to tell whether I’ve heard his narrative by recalling statements and reiterating details. Notably, misinterpreting or misunderstanding what an interviewee is trying to say could jeopardize the investigation. The interview should be lengthy and in-depth enough to reveal relevant details.

How to Begin the Interview

Before the interview, it is always ideal to select a conducive environment for conducting the exercise. The perfect interview room should be small and without windows, with only two chairs for the suspect and the interviewer (Vinluan, 2015). It should not encompass any distractions such as outside noises, wall paintings, among other things. Once I meet Bernard Ebbers, I would be friendly and begin by shaking hands and engage in small talk on the way to the interview room. When questioning Bernard Ebbers about alleged fraud, I will start with some simple context questions to get a sense of his reactions. Regardless of how friendly I make the interview atmosphere, Bernard Ebbers will most likely feel uneasy. I plan to better understand his reactions and natural behavior by asking Bernard Ebbers questions about his experience at WorldCom and the obligations of his job (Albrecht et al., 2015). Potential background questions include: how long have you been with the firm? What is the title of your position? What does a typical day in the office look like for you? What is the scope of your responsibilities?

Being harsh, criticizing, or demeaning a suspect only makes the interview or interrogation a failure as it shuts them down, preventing disclosure opportunity. One can rely on their instincts to get confessions as we always tell when telling the truth or lying in our social contexts (Vinluan, 2015). Before beginning the interview with Bernard Ebbers, I would try to relate with him to understand what motivated him to commit the fraud by using my life encounters as emotional tools. A good example would be utilizing my background in Accounting or Auditing as a fraud investigator. I will also be sincere with the suspect and try to empathize with him to gauge whether I relate to him or get through him. I would also use body language to connect with Bernard Ebbers since it’s the unspoken part of communication that allows us to express our true thoughts and feelings. As a form of communication and relationship building, people unconsciously mimic each other’s nonverbal cues (Vinluan, 2015). As a fraud examiner, I can help Bernard Ebbers relax by indirectly expressing my body language. Furthermore, body language offers the interviewer the chance to assess the degree of rapport established by switching posture and monitoring the interviewee’s response. This information will help determine whether to enter delicate interrogation areas or continue to build a rapport with Bernard Ebbers.

Conclusion

As observed, setting targets helps you shape your investigative interviews and puts things into perspective (Vinluan, 2015). Before beginning the interview with Bernard Ebbers, I would try to relate with him to understand what motivated him and his company to commit fraud. I would also interview in a conducive environment for obtaining the best results. It is recommended that a fraud examiner uses non-consecutive questions about the fraud’s particulars to see if the answer is consistent. The interview should be lengthy and in-depth enough to reveal relevant details. Use APA referencing style.Fraud Interview.

References

Albrecht, W. S., Albrecht, C. O., Albrecht, C. C., & Zimbelman, M. F. (2015). Fraud examination. Cengage Learning.

Cernusca, L. (2007). Ethics in accounting: The WorldCom Inc. scandal. Lex ET Scientia Int’l J., 14, 239.

Homer, E. M. (2019). Testing the fraud triangle: a systematic review. Journal of Financial Crime.

Kennon, J. (2020). The WorldCom Scandal Explained | How One of the World’s Largest Companies Made $3.8 Billion Disappear. The Balance. https://www.thebalance.com/worldcom-s-magic-trick-356121.

Vinluan, F. (2015). Tips for conducting a forensic interview. Journal of Accountancy, 219(2), 22.

How would you prepare for a fraud interview with Bernard Ebbers?,

What objectives should guide a fraud examiner during an investigative interview?,

How does the fraud triangle apply to Bernard Ebbers and the WorldCom scandal?,

What interviewing techniques are appropriate when dealing with a defensive fraud suspect?,

How should a fraud examiner begin a fraud interview to encourage disclosure?

January 24, 2026

Bio-Inspired Cybersecurity

By AssignmentHelp Blog

Bio-Inspired Cybersecurity

Wireless networking has had a major influence in a variety of fields. High-Performance Computing is used in research laboratories, financial markets, media, and weather forecasting to achieve parallel processing, live streaming, accurate IT, and predictive analytics (Bitam, Zeadally & Mellouk 68). Similarly, the automated immune response, collective consciousness, evolutionary algorithms, and cell and molecular biology-based methods are used to advance e bio-inspired cybersecurity.

Networks and communications systems use cyber protection to protect their properties from malicious hackers, hostile entities, criminals, protestors, and unexpected shifts in the network setting (Jithish &Sankaran 3785). Anti-virus, invasion prevention and discovery, vulnerability behavior examination, identification, honeypots, and retaliation are only a few examples of cybersecurity tools and frameworks with their origins in bio-inspired methods.

Bio-Inspired Cybersecurity. Mammalian immune systems serve as a foundation for the artificial immune system (AIS) mapped on cyberspace to implement effective cybersecurity. Even in the face of unknown threats, the immune system’s response is an extremely adaptive mechanism (Mazurczyk et al. 58). As a result, it seems obvious to use the same processes in computer networks for self-organization and self-healing operations. AIS techniques have also proven beneficial in security scenarios such as virus and intrusion detection.

Numerous organic and bio-inspired algorithms were modeled for executing protected, intensive computing in powerful computational applications to improve the security of such data-driven networks (Bitam, Zeadally & Mellouk 69). Swarm intelligence for cellular networks, for example, is a bio-inspired methodology that uses a broad collection of machine learning techniques to categorize the optimum functions, which can then be used to detect cyber-attacks in wireless networks. To identify and mitigate attacks in a device.

A honey bee-centered bio-inspired software with foraging approaches is commonly used for its self-organizing function in multiple systems. A Self-Organized deviation discovery system Inspired by Bees explains an intriguing idea of a self-organized anomaly detection system (Jithish &Sankaran 3787). The social dynamics of honey bees as recognized in nature influenced this bio-centered approach. Participants in honey bee foraging do not establish the search goal in advance; instead, they realize irregularities (resources) as they come across them (Mazurczyk et al. 59). The foraging methods could be mapped to computer device networks to track and minimize distributed attacks carried out in an automated manner. Bio-Inspired Cybersecurity.

The current bio-centered methods developed for enhancing cyber protection of cyber-physical structures (CPS) using broadcast communication networks are examined. The authors suggest Swarm Intelligence for WSN Cybersecurity (SIWC), a standardized bio-inspired artificial intelligence model that fixes the shortcomings of previous bio-inspired strategies (Jithish &Sankaran 3787). SIWC is a swarm intelligence-trained neural network system that automatically determines the best critical parameters for detecting cyber-attacks. The fundamental concepts are straightforward. Persons, or structures that cooperate on a larger mission, adhere to a set of basic rules that result in incredible global actions.

On the other hand, bio-inspired infection algorithms are designed to detect malicious activity in communication paths by concealing adversary behaviors through transmissive attacks (Bitam, Zeadally & Mellouk 71). Algorithms focused on Bio-inspired RF cryptography developed for prohibiting snoopers from discovering the data by signaling through encoded chirp radio waves in military communications. Thus, in intensive distributed computing environments, nature and bio-inspired algorithms can help improve security and network efficiency.

Research Problem

Many current and proposed information network frameworks have resulted from advancements in communication and networking technologies. These developments include recognizable radio interconnectivity, detector and operator networks, quantum transmission interconnectivity, and software-defined networks (Suárez, Gallos & Fefferman 281). Nonetheless, several common substantial challenges must be addressed for these current and future networking paradigms to be realized in practice.

While bio-inspired cybersecurity models have produced several exquisite remedies to such problems, a large percentage of these attempts have been haphazard parallels between natural and human-designed systems (Jithish &Sankaran 3788). The current investigation method, through the extensive distinction of established organic algorithms for one that most approximately resembles each recent network security threat and subsequent attempt to reproduce it in a built computerized environment, remains a challenge.

The development of bio-inspired algorithms in cybersecurity often relies on creating independent analogies between imminent risks and natural processes (Bitam, Zeadally & Mellouk 72). Although great caution is always exercised in creating such parallels and the subsequent customization of the copied software techniques to suit critical infrastructure requirements, deviating too far from the normal environment can undermine the remedy’s work, making the act of looking to science for ideas exhausting and even meaningless.

The overload of the network by intentionally created but instead useless content, such as DoS and DDoS attacks, is one type of malicious Internet attack that is of widespread concern (Suárez, Gallos & Fefferman 282). These attacks can have a significant impact on the effective management of packets by any nodule that is in the attack’s route. Timely discovery of varying traffic quantity or trends is a key issue in network security, as adept approaches give security professionals more time to implement prevention measures.

Proposed Solution

Researchers can adopt a functional abstraction procedure, determining the organic algorithm’s aspects that offer the most efficacy in the actual world and subsequently using those generalized characteristics as layout features to create deliberate, customized, and possibly enhanced solutions (Jithish &Sankaran 3787). Feedback loops, such as constructive feedback to trigger actuation or data aggregation, and negative feedback for network congestion management and smooth regulation, have been adapted to address open problems in networking due to continued research. Similarly, weighted probabilistic methods for task allocation, managed communication, and congestion management, as well as local state knowledge for effective data fusion, energy control, and clustering.

Similarly, the genetic algorithm generates moving target security by directly manipulating device configurations such as applications and operating systems to find complex, stable setups put into operation at different times (Rauf 6705). The motivation for this concept is that the algorithms’ different configurations will cause the attacker’s awareness of the system to be disrupted. As a result, the attacker operates on erroneous or continuously shifting information, putting more effort into the attack and increasing the chances of identification. These techniques lead to different levels of approaches and algorithm designs for effective, stable, and resilient communication and knowledge networks at each of the networking layers.

Current and future knowledge networks must have self-management, evolvability capacity, and survivability capacities. To meet such requirements, connectivity must be outfitted with a collection of intelligent programs and mechanisms similar to those found in organic systems. For instance, in highly partitioned networks, an outbreak propagating instrument could be changed for effective data transmission and aggressive routing in a lag lenient networking setting (Suárez, Gallos & Fefferman 283). Lookup tables, either homogeneous or heterogeneous, are commonly used in Peer-2-Peer (P2P) interconnectivity to provide exploration.

However, in unorganized distributed P2P networks, the effort to locate information can readily become the decisive element (Jithish &Sankaran 3788). Adoption of ant-centered methods in this realm is anticipated to resolve some of the traditional challenges. In this case, the user program is a standard ant-centered question routing technique in P2P connectivity.

Epidemic propagation is also adopted as an example to demonstrate data distribution in cellular ad hoc connectivity (Bitam, Zeadally & Mellouk 74). In computer networks, disease communication has a wide variety of applications. Predominantly, the emphasis is on forwarding in provisional cellular networks with rising popularity in aggressive routing. Communication is transmitted amidst gadgets that come into close concurrence to find a designated receiver finally. With substantial growth in network magnitude both extensively and in the number of hubs, close coordination of information interchange becomes impractical (Rauf 6695). In general, Ant colonies and other insect colonies that perform global tasks without being controlled by a centralized entity could be used to develop conversation methods for framework-free connectivity environments.

Critique

Because the objective of the internet security sphere is to create robust infrastructures that can reconstruct themselves without compromising operational requirements, service accessibility, functionality, and risks involved with these features cannot be overlooked (Suárez, Gallos & Fefferman 285). Ant colony optimization and immunology-inspired methods can primarily be used for encroachment detection by thoroughly analyzing the underlying concepts of nature-inspired frameworks.

By their very nature, these structures do not have any fundamental concept that can be aligned to the network security context for reaction and recovery (Jithish &Sankaran 3782). The key drawback of these frameworks is that they cannot accommodate user-oriented protocols or limitations because reactivity and rehabilitation systems typically operate on a foundation of certain prearranged procedures and constraints.

The current cybersecurity system has multiple innate shortcomings that make the management of existing network protection equipment unattainable and offer the attacker irregular advantages after decades of deployment (Rauf 6701). These limitations result from a lack of strong correlations among network elements, a lack of self-awareness, and self-correcting mechanisms; obtaining global knowledge is difficult. These approaches are computationally complex and require users to choose a variety of input variables.

Bio-Inspired Cybersecurity. Another important distinction is that biological variables are affected by age and adjacent material, while computerized variables do not change with age; rather, their variance is caused by events, making continuous or discrete differential mechanisms difficult to apply (Mazurczyk et al. 59). Markedly, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are essential in CPSs, especially for functions like surveillance and control. However, these WSNs are vulnerable to a variety of cyber threats that can result in the loss, theft, or damage of delicate information, as well as the deterioration of CPS services. use MLA paper format.

Works Cited

Bitam, Salim, Sherali Zeadally, and Abdelhamid Mellouk. “Bio-inspired cybersecurity for wireless sensor networks.” IEEE Communications Magazine 54.6 (2016): 68-74.

Jithish, J., and Sriram Sankaran. “A Bio-Inspired Approach to Secure Networked Control Systems against Adversarial Delays.” Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 36.4 (2019): 3779-3790.

Mazurczyk, Wojciech, et al. “Bio-inspired cyber security for communications and networking.” IEEE Communications Magazine 54.6 (2016): 58-59.

Rauf, Usman. “A Taxonomy of Bio-Inspired Cyber Security Approaches Existing Techniques and Future Directions.” Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 43.12 (2018): 6693-6708.

Suárez, Gonzalo, Lazaros Gallos, and Nina Fefferman. “A Case Study in Tailoring a Bio-Inspired Cyber-Security Algorithm: designing anomaly detection for multilayer networks.” 2018 IEEE Security and Privacy Workshops (SPW). IEEE, (2018): 281-286.

January 24, 2026

Negligence Case Analysis

By AssignmentHelp Blog

Negligence Case Analysis

Question 1

Identification and Discussion of Legal Issues

In the case of Xin, he intends to sue the Margaret River camping ground for his injuries, arguing that they should have replaced the net or at the very least warned of the danger posed by the hole in the net. The legal issue highlighted here is negligence. Negligence is the failure to take plausible care to evade causing damage to another person. It entails a legal obligation on the part of the public to behave in a certain way to minimise the risk of harm to others.

In law, to prove negligence, we will use the 2014 Court of Appeal of New South Wales in Reid v Commercial Club (Albury) Ltd [2014] NSWCA 98. It was a petition for a personal injury lawsuit where the Albury commercial club was the defendant. Reid awarded costs after failing to determine any violation of an obligation by the defendant at first instance. On June 18, 2010, the appellant was injured while attending an accolade night ceremony at the defendant’s property in Albury. The plaintiff broke her anklebone and sustained a foot injury while strolling to the podium in the theater where the event was held after missing the stairs to the ballroom and falling (Reid v Commercial Club, 2014). The accused, who was the owner and dweller of the Commercial Club Albury, was sued by the plaintiff, charging that the defendant had violated an obligation of care overdue to her. Case Study – Negligence Legal Issues.

Even though the ballroom was below the elevation of the stage itself and that the bulb had been darkened for dancing after the awards presentation, the judge found no violation of duty by the accused at first instance. It was a situation involving the responsibility of the occupier (Reid v Commercial Club, 2014). The Court of Appeal held that the liability of a premises occupier to users of its property is to take reasonable responsibility to eliminate a possible threat of injury to participants. Still, the duty does not apply to avoiding all risks, keeping in mind that what is reasonable can differ depending on the complainant’s entry into the property.

In the case of Joey, she intends to sue Margaret River’s local authority (the council) for failing to install a barrier around the cliff’s edge. The legal issue developed in this scenario is a tort arising out of negligence. In common law jurisdictions, a tort is a civil misdeed that results in harm or damage to a plaintiff and entails legal responsibility for the person who caused the injury (CHAN, 2016). Duty, breach of duty, cause, and damage are the four components of any good tort case. A violation of obligation by the respondent against the complainant that led to an injury must have occurred for a tort claim to be well-founded.

In law, to prove negligence and the precedent obligation of a government agency, the Australian High Court in the case of Romeo v Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory in 1998 will be adopted. Nadia Anne Romeo dropped six meters from the peak of the Dripstone Mountains onto the Casuarina Beach in rural Darwin on April 24, 1987. Romeo was paralyzed from the waist down due to severe injuries. She sued the appellant, the Northern Territory Conservation Commission, for damages in the Supreme Court.

The High Court declined to hold the Commission liable. The Conservation Commission was accused of negligence for failing to warn of the cliff’s existence or install a fence or other barrier at the cliff’s edge (Romeo v Conservation Commission, 1998). The Court determined that there was no need for the Conservation Commission to bear responsibility in this case because the danger was evident, and holding otherwise would have far-reaching implications for public access to the natural environment around the country. Case Study – Negligence Legal Issues.

In Jerene’s case, the legal issue is negligence. Jerene wants to sue Margaret River’s local government (the council) for the cost of her physiotherapy and other recovery services because the Town allowed surfboards in the designated swimming area. In law, to prove negligence, the New South Wales Supreme Court case of 1990 between Glasheen and The Council of the Municipality of Waverley will be used. Rebecca Glasheen, 14, was wounded while surfing in white water between the flags at Bondi Beach on a foam surfboard. She became permanently disabled after being struck by a fibreglass surfboard or hitting her head on the seabed while attempting to evade capture (Glasheen v. The Council, 1990). At the time, one lifesaver on duty said he hadn’t seen any surfboard riders in the flagged field.

Sharpe J was tasked with determining whether the council could be held liable for harms suffered in the surf at a public beach or whether policy considerations covered it (Glasheen v. The Council, 1990). He also looked at whether the city council had a responsibility to uphold a private cause of action. Both issues were decided in favor of the plaintiffs. According to the facts of the event, lifeguards’ primary responsibility is to keep a close eye on swimmers in designated areas, which included the prohibition of ‘hard’ surfboards. Sharpe J ruled that the lifesaver had failed to properly supervise the flagged area since surfboard riders were discovered in the area.

Examination and Analysis of Information

Xin intends to sue the Margaret River camping ground for his injuries, arguing that they should have replaced the net or at the very least warned of the danger posed by the hole in the net. The legal principle that the defendant’s wrongful actions must proximately incur damages governs the recovery of damages by a plaintiff in a case (Dietrich, 2015). Injuries are likely to be limited to those that the defendant might reasonably expect. There could be no responsibility if the defendant did not predict that their conduct would cause harm to others. Damages in tort are awarded to put the victim in the position he would have been in if the tort had not occurred.

As for Joey, she intends to sue Margaret River’s local authority (the council) for failing to install a barrier around the cliff’s edge. In Margaret River’s local authority’s defence they will quote that Joey and her friend Jerene could not notice the warning sign due to intoxication. They could also assert that the degree of obviousness of the danger warrants individuals to practice self-care. In exceptional circumstances, the defendant would be required to show that they were not reckless (Kyriakakis et al., 2019). It will only happen if the damage does not have occurred if sufficient precautions had been taken, because there is no other reason for what happened, known as res ipsa loquitor, or the thing that speaks for itself. After all, the defendant was in command of the situation while the victim was not.

Therefore, Joey can use the concept of contributory negligence as a defence. Contributory negligence happens when the claimant is partially to blame for his injury, and the defendant may use this as a defence (Thampapillai, 2015). Depending on the degree to which the complainant is judged liable for his loss, the Court can reduce any damages. The defendant has the burden of proving that the complainant was at fault and therefore led to their injury. Although the injuries are consolidated to represent the degree to which the complainant was responsible for their injuries, the defendant remains liable.

In the case of Jerene, she wants to sue the council for the cost of her physiotherapy and other recovery services. Those in charge of beaches owe a duty of care to swimmers using beaches under their jurisdiction. Areas of possible neglect include insufficient monitoring of designated swimming areas, failure to warn of hidden or unusual naturally occurring hazards, and failure to warn of dangerous surf conditions (Dietrich, 2015). Therefore, Jerene qualifies for special damages due to lost wages and medical bills and general damages and injury.

Case Study – Negligence Legal Issues. In any claim of negligence, the primary remedy would be a payment of damages. The claimant’s injury must be of a sort that is reasonably probable (Dietrich, 2015). If a reasonable individual might have expected how the crash, malfunction, or damage will occur, the loss is reasonably predictable. As a general rule, the complainant must establish that the defendant breached the duty of care. Use APA referencing style.

Identify and discuss the legal issues raised in Xin’s case.,
Identify and discuss the legal issues raised in Joey’s case.,
Identify and discuss the legal issues raised in Jerene’s case.,
Examine and analyze the applicable legal principles and precedents.,
Discuss remedies defenses and likely outcomes under negligence law.

January 23, 2026

Cervical Nerve Impingement

By AssignmentHelp Blog

Cervical Nerve Impingement

Case Study Analysis. A 64-year-old male presents to the clinic with complaints of gradual onset of weakness to the left hand. He is left hand dominant. He has had ongoing numbness and tingling that feels as though it starts at his elbow. However, over the past 2-3 days he had been dropping items due to the weakness. He denies any recent injuries but state that he sustained a crushing injury to the left thumb 4 years ago. He is employed as a mechanic. Several years ago, he tripped over a tire and fell backwards striking his head on the fender of a car. He didn’t seek medical attention because he only had a small scrape on his elbow. Case Study Analysis. A CT of the head is within normal limits and all labs are normal with the exception of a slightly elevated, non-fasting blood sugar (135). He has no history of diabetes. An x-ray of the neck reveals mild-to-moderate degenerative disc disease at C6-C7 with neuroforaminal narrowing and slight impingement of the exiting nerve root. In your Case Study Analysis related to the scenario provided, explain the following: Both the neurological and musculoskeletal pathophysiologic processes that would account for the patient presenting these symptoms. Any racial/ethnic variables that may impact physiological functioning. How these processes interact to affect the patient.

Case Study Analysis. A 64-year-old male presents to the clinic with complaints of gradual onset of weakness to the left hand. He is left hand dominant. He has had ongoing numbness and tingling that feels as though it starts at his elbow. However, over the past 2-3 days he had been dropping items due to the weakness. He denies any recent injuries but state that he sustained a crushing injury to the left thumb 4 years ago. He is employed as a mechanic. Several years ago, he tripped over a tire and fell backwards striking his head on the fender of a car. He didn’t seek medical attention because he only had a small scrape on his elbow. Case Study Analysis. A CT of the head is within normal limits and all labs are normal with the exception of a slightly elevated non-fasting blood sugar (135). He has no history of diabetes. An x-ray of the neck reveals mild-to-moderate degenerative disc disease at C6-C7 with neuroforaminal narrowing and slight impingement of the exiting nerve root. In your Case Study Analysis related to the scenario provided, explain the following: Both the neurological and musculoskeletal pathophysiologic processes that would account for the patient presenting these symptoms. Any racial/ethnic variables that may impact physiological functioning. How these processes interact to affect the patient.

Use APA referencing style.

Both the neurological and musculoskeletal pathophysiologic processes that would account for the patient presenting these symptoms.,

Any racial/ethnic variables that may impact physiological functioning.,

How these processes interact to affect the patient.

January 23, 2026

Employment Separation Policies

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Employment Separation Policies

Employee Manual. You are the director of human resources of a new corporation that manufactures air conditioners. The board of directors has asked you to prepare an employee manual that includes several policies for the company’s employees, including engineers, lawyers, salespersons, marketing personnel, finance workers, and so on. your team will start the research necessary for the employee manual. You will begin with drafting your company’s Separation of Employment and Noncompete Policies. Your company’s Separation of Employment and Noncompete Policies must include details for the following topics: Noncompete restrictions, Please discuss which instances employees would be subject to noncompete agreements. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by voluntary resignation. Please make sure that you discuss sick leave, vacation leave, and the necessary notice that the employer requires. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by termination. Employee Manual. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by retirement. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by disability. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by death. The policy and procedure for the employee’s workforce reduction Please make sure that you discuss the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act. The policy and procedure for rehire, re-instatement, and re-employment.

Employee Manual. You are the director of human resources of a new corporation that manufactures air conditioners. The board of directors has asked you to prepare an employee manual that includes several policies for the company’s employees, including engineers, lawyers, salespersons, marketing personnel, finance workers, and so on. your team will start the research necessary for the employee manual. You will begin with drafting your company’s Separation of Employment and Noncompete Policies. Your company’s Separation of Employment and Noncompete Policies must include details for the following topics: Noncompete restrictions, Please discuss which instances employees would be subject to noncompete agreements. Employee Manual. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by voluntary resignation. Please make sure that you discuss sick leave, vacation leave, and the necessary notice that the employer requires. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by termination. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by retirement. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by disability. The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by death. The policy and procedure for the employee’s workforce reduction Please make sure that you discuss the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act. The policy and procedure for rehire, re-instatement, and re-employment.

Use APA references.

Noncompete restrictions Please discuss which instances employees would be subject to noncompete agreements.,

The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by voluntary resignation.,

The policy and procedure for the employee’s separation by termination.,

The policy and procedure for the employee’s workforce reduction Please make sure that you discuss the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act.

January 23, 2026

Cultural Self-Assessment

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Cultural Self-Assessment. Below are some questions that will serve as a guide and basis for writing this cultural self-assessment paper. Students are asked to use the questions below as a frame of reference for developing a clear and helpful understanding of experiences and reactions. It is my hope that you will take the opportunity to vis these thoughts and feelings to further enhance your future social work practice with diverse cultural groups.

What is your cultural/racial/ethnic identity? How do you identify yourself? If your cultural/racial/ethnic background is diverse with which do you most closely identify?

How important is cultural/racial/ethnic identity to you?

How did your family of origin influence your sense of cultural/racial/ethnic identification?

Cultural Self-Assessment. What are the highest held beliefs or values of your cultural/racial/ethnic group? Discuss which of these values you like most and which you like least?

How has your culture/race/ethnicity influenced your perceptions about – Problem identification, Problem solving, Help-seeking behaviors.

Do persons of your cultural/racial/ethnic group experience racism and discrimination?,

Have you ever been discriminated against based on your cultural/racial/ethnic identity? ,

Have you ever discriminated against someone based on their cultural/racial/ethnic identity?,

Discuss your personal biases about diverse cultural groups (e.g gender age class race ethnicity sexual or affectional preferences physical/mental abilities religious/spiritual beliefs, and culture/race/ethnicity). Specifically address how and where you have struggled with these biases.

Discuss your goals and specific practical strategies for addressing and/or managing these biases in your personal and professional life.

Cultural Self-Assessment. Discuss which groups, other than your own, that you think you understand best. Why? Which do you understand least? Why?

Below are some questions that will serve as a guide and basis for writing this cultural self-assessment paper. Students are asked to use the questions below as a frame of reference for developing a clear and helpful understanding of experiences and reactions. It is my hope that you will take the opportunity to vis these thoughts and feelings to further enhance your future social work practice with diverse cultural groups.

Use APA references.

January 23, 2026

Role of APN

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Role of APN in Youth Health. Despite increased abilities across developmental realms, including the maturation of pain systems involving self-regulation and the coordination of affect and cognition, the transition to young adulthood is accompanied by higher rates of mortality, greater engagement in health-damaging behaviors, and an increase in chronic conditions. Rates of motor vehicle fatality and homicide peak during young adulthood, as do mental health problems, substance abuse, unintentional pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections.

Describe how the advanced practice nurse can play a role in improving the health of young adults through preventive screening and intervention.

Despite increased abilities across developmental realms, including the maturation of pain systems involving self-regulation and the coordination of affect and cognition, the transition to young adulthood is accompanied by higher rates of mortality, greater engagement in health-damaging behaviors, and an increase in chronic conditions. Rates of motor vehicle fatality and homicide peak during young adulthood, as do mental health problems, substance abuse, unintentional pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections. Role of APN in Youth Health

Describe how the advanced practice nurse can play a role in improving the health of young adults through preventive screening and intervention.

Present references in APA style

Describe how the advanced practice nurse can play a role in improving the health of young adults through preventive screening and intervention.,

January 23, 2026

Public Budgeting Reforms

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Public Budgeting Reforms

Budgeting entails enacting predetermined targets into effect, disclosing substantive performance outcomes, and assessing performance against predetermined objectives. A line-item budget is one in which the specific financial statement elements are classified according to category. Similarly, program budgeting is where budget information and decisions are structured according to government objectives for a specific project or program with all expenses and revenues factored. On the other hand, a performance budget represents the fund input and public services production by the government. As observed, fiscal policy is the adoption of government income acquisition and spending to affect a country’s economy. Each government must regularly determine how much it needs to spend, what it needs to spend on, and how to fund its spending through fiscal policy, with the budget as the key fiscal policy instrument. Markedly, the budgetary process has long been seen by political scientists as the richest source of evidence on topics such as what is responsible for the success or failure of governmental programs? Who makes the decisions on our country’s priorities? Persons, institutions, associations, and groups of citizens who have direct or indirect involvement in the budgeting process at any or all levels of the governance system and activities are referred to as stakeholders. With limited resources and a rising understanding of government corruption and inefficiency, there was a corresponding need to strengthen the government’s fiscal governance domestically. Although each year and each jurisdiction has its own specific political and cultural context, budgeting is fundamentally a universal and essential practice.

Impact of Structural and Procedural Changes of Public Budgeting Reforms

A budget is a financial plan that indicates how resources will be obtained, distributed, and used for a given period in terms of revenue and expenditure (Heinle et al., 2014). Budgeting entails enacting predetermined targets into effect, disclosing substantive performance outcomes, and assessing performance against predetermined objectives.

Impact of Line Item Budgeting on the budgetary process

A line-item budget is when the specific financial statement elements are classified according to category (Ibrahim, 2013). The relation between the financial data for the prior accounting or budgeting cycles and the projected data for the present or future periods is shown. The line-item format allows allocating funds for personnel, equipment, materials, services, and other required items associated with individual accounts and compares budgeted sums to actual expenditures.

The line-item budgeting system is essentially an expenditure-control method (Sandalgaard & Bukh, 2014). Since this technique originated as a response to corruption and not an interest in government effectiveness, the technique is considered to be a device for management control. An allocation of resources is made to a department, office, or subdivisions of a department or office. As mentioned above, this strategy focuses on managing spending and sufficient expenditure of resources, so it only views the organizational system’s input without much interest in the production or work done as funds resources are distributed based on departmental structure lines and spending line-item categories.

Notably, the operations that make up the historical pool or line elements are not only necessary for the entity’s current vision but must be maintained over the forthcoming budget period (Sandalgaard & Bukh, 2014). This strategy also implies that current operations are being carried out economically and optimally and will continue to be cost-effective in the coming fiscal year.

Effect of Program Budgeting on the budgetary process

Program budgeting is where budget information and decisions are structured according to government objectives for a specific project or program with all expenses and revenues factored (Ibrahim, 2013). In practice, the budgeting approach varies from conventional budgeting, emphasizing the program’s successful attainment rather than reducing costs. The program-based budgeting will result from the program’s goals. In a community project, a community initiative or event will measure the program’s services’ productive output. As a consequence, a consistent description of the program goals would be crucial to its assessment.

With regards to the use of the word program budget, there is a great deal of uncertainty. Some writers differentiate between the terms budget and program budget performance since the Hoover Commission first used the term performance budget in 1949. The Hoover Commission Task Force later used the term program budget (Ibrahim, 2013). Budget officials and economists consider program budgeting predominantly as a mechanism that optimizes resource distribution decisions. Simultaneously, public administration or accounting-oriented leaders and scholars view it specifically as a vehicle for making public sector performance management functionality.

Effect of Performance Budgeting on the budgetary process

A performance budget represents the fund input and public services production by the government (Kelly, 2015). The aim is to define and rate relative performance for defined outcomes based on target achievement. Government entities use this form of a budget to display the correlation between taxpayer’s money and the results of services rendered by federal, state, or local governments. It is a budgetary approach focused on the government’s tasks and activities in executing its policies. It was established because the line item budget method contained little details about program priorities or achievements and was ineffective for comparing expenses to public achievements or making resource distribution decisions (Ibrahim, 2013). Reformers believed that by using this budgeting method, program administrators, department leaders, elected officials, and residents would assess government operations costs.

Effect of Economic, Political, and Social Restraints on the Budgetary Process

Impact of the Fiscal Policies

The word public policy may refer to government-created and implemented policies to achieve particular objectives (Natchez & Bupp, 1973). Fiscal policy is the adoption of government income acquisition and spending to affect a country’s economy. To obtain a proper perspective on the various facets of budgeting, an understanding of fiscal policy is essential. Budgeting strategies and processes are being tweaked to meet the changing needs of fiscal policy. To fund its budget, every government levies taxes. Each government must regularly determine how much it needs to spend, what it needs to spend on, and how to fund its spending through fiscal policy, with the budget as the key fiscal policy instrument (Sandalgaard & Bukh, 2014). An expansionary fiscal strategy raises the federal budget deficit or decreases the surplus because it increases government expenditures or reduces revenues (Natchez & Bupp, 1973). A contractionary strategy would lower the deficit or raise the surplus.

Impact of the Political Factors

It can be explained by rational choice theory, which adopts microeconomic theory principles to analyze and explain political behavior (Gibran and Sekwat, 2009). Voters and political parties serve as objective decision-makers who are seeking to optimize their preferences to be achieved. Parties devised proposals that would earn them the most votes, and voters wanted to realize as much of their desires as possible by government intervention. Policymakers are obliged to define all of the current value preferences of a community using cost-benefit analysis. They then give each value a relative weight, resulting in discovering all possible policies for achieving these values (Natchez & Bupp, 1973). They can recognize all the costs and consequences of each alternative policy and choose the best alternative, which is also the most effective in terms of costs and benefits.

As the twentieth century began, American policymakers were shocked to see the federal government’s activities and expenses increase. With limited resources and a rising understanding of government corruption and inefficiency, there was a corresponding need to strengthen its fiscal governance (Ibrahim, 2013). Policymakers agreed that while government finances had to be put on a balanced perspective, there were very few technological resources and government management institutions. These concerns triggered a concerted effort to build public financial management resources on a more solid footing. Based on the normative budgetary theory, practical advice reformers issued budgeting and accounting reforms promoted by a government theory and how budgeting relates to the state.

The empirical and administrative leadership movements influenced the political and ideological powers contributing to the 1921 Budgeting and Accounting Act (Ibrahim, 2013). The method of budgeting that emerged from the Act centered on regulation and was instrumental. The line-item budget divided government spending into individual items, giving the government the best chance of reducing expenses and increasing productivity.

Markedly, the budgetary process has long been seen by political scientists as the richest source of evidence on topics such as what is responsible for the success or failure of governmental programs? Who makes the decisions on our country’s priorities? (Sandalgaard & Bukh, 2014). The presumption has been that the budgetary process represents the priorities and conflicts contributing to specific projects being prioritized over others.

Impact of Major Impacts of Stakeholders

Persons, institutions, associations, and groups of citizens who have direct or indirect involvement in the budgeting process at any or all levels of the governance system and activities are referred to as stakeholders.

Impact of Internal Stakeholders

Internal stakeholders have a vested interest in the organization’s performance. They include employees, associations, suppliers, regulatory authorities, owners, community members, and those who depend on or represent the organization (Heinle et al., 2014). Approval of the Budget and its execution is needed if the budget is a constraint. At the community level, members will let everyone know about the mechanism involved and what compromises were made in the final budget. It is essential to recognize that people and teams behave disparately in diverse conditions.

The effect stakeholders can have on agency policy, plan of action, and programs rely on their connection to either the agency or the matter of concern. According to Heinle et al. (2014) managers should recognize and earnestly observe all rightful stakeholders’ issues and should treat their concerns suitably into consideration during resolution.

Impact of External Stakeholders

In government organizations, the main external stakeholder is the general public, other stakeholders being suppliers and civil society and interest groups, and other government agencies (Heinle et al., 2014). In several cases, participation in the budget process has been considered one of the fundamental rights at the heart of democratic governance and human development. Policy networks, civic involvement or group engagement projects, and stakeholder engagement efforts are some of the main engagement approaches used by public organizations.

These budgets reflect financial strategies that determine how public resources will be used to achieve policy objectives. To understand the budget process at the regional and local levels, a basic understanding of the processes and timelines for preparing the budget at the federal level is necessary. Similarly, the number of stakeholder participants and the degree to which stakeholders take advantage of opportunities to engage in governance processes influence the budgeting process regarding accountability, transparency, sustainability, and service delivery (Heinle et al., 2014). Accountability mechanisms are necessary to check that governments are meeting their obligations, with one such mechanism being budget transparency.

Analysis of the function of Public Budgeting in Managing Public Sector Organizations Applying Historical and Theoretical Assumptions and Their Impact Domestically and Internationally

Domestically

We need a budgeting hypothesis that will help us clarify government budgeting’s reality to understand how, where, and why governments budget before comprehending what public budgeting is. As the twentieth century began, American policymakers were shocked to see the federal government’s activities and expenses proliferate (Caiden, 1994). With limited resources and a rising understanding of government corruption and inefficiency, there was a corresponding need to strengthen the government’s fiscal governance. Policymakers agreed that while government finances had to be put on a balanced perspective. Based on the normative budgetary theory, practical advice reformers issued budgeting and accounting reforms promoted by a government approach and how budgeting relates to the state.

Over time, perspectives on the need for a public budget have differed. Before the twentieth century, the primary motivation for early budget implementation was regulating government expenditure and taxation (Caiden, 1994). Many economists have regarded the public budget as a statutory governmental tool and as a tool for political, monetary, accounting, and control reasons in the public sector. The budget has since been analyzed from the perspective of a range of disciplines.

Markedly, these concerns triggered a concerted effort to build resources for putting public financial management on a more solid footing. During this era, theorists started to concentrate on administrative rationality to approach the public management task. It resulted in the Budgeting and Accounting Act of 1921, which established a robust and centralized executive management style (Caiden, 1994). As a result, the budgeting system that followed was mainly concerned with regulation and was instrumental. For instance, the line-item budget broke down government spending into individual items that seemed to give the government the best chance of reducing expenses and increasing efficiency. Markedly, centralized, top-down management was required for fiscal discipline, so the line item budget was established as an executive or top-down budgeting tool.

The positivist trend in public administration and budgeting theory contributed to the belief that the administration’s goal should be efficiency (Caiden, 1994). It became clear that the line item budget approach generated no information about program priorities or success. It was insufficient to link expenses to public successes that allowed performance budgeting to be adopted. This budgeting strategy is focused on the roles and tasks that the government conducts to carry out its policies. It was built on the premise that the government needed to keep costs under control to raise operational efficiency.

Performance budgeting maintained the theory’s emphasis on meeting these goals while paying very little attention to the larger framework in which budgeting occurs (Ibrahim, 2013). It also eliminated the habits associated with budgeting from consideration. The national government reinstated program budgeting in place of performance budgeting. The idea that budgetary resolutions should be focused on governmental operations’ priorities or outcomes relative to the contributions to government products’ development was based on this new budgeting approach.

Internationally

Although each year and each jurisdiction has its own specific political and cultural context, budgeting is fundamentally a universal and essential practice (Ibrahim, 2013). Budgeting is part of a broader research agenda as a viable science of human behavior, which essentially allows for predicting outcomes and the comparative study of government policy in various areas of the world. Markedly, theory validation involves research in multiple contexts of hypotheses. Making comparisons, building classifications, and accounting for similarities and variations in drawing a universal hypothesis regarding budgetary actions are all part of understanding the range of budgetary behavior.

Any shortcomings in public budget theory can be traced back to its inability to describe public budgeting theory’s principles and structures in a straightforward and structured way (Rubin, 1990). Through maintaining the conventional concern regarding organizational role and structure, modern structuralists tried to bridge the gulf between structure and behavior. At the same time, they acknowledged that organizations are highly diverse and that structure is not always associated with formal bureaucracy.

In a cross-comparison between the budgeting behaviors between different countries, both the rich and the poor, the generally structured budgeting routines seemed similar to incrementalism. The practice of incrementalism involves basing this year’s budget on the previous years and adding a percentage rise. The numerous economic and social contexts, however, changed how decisions were taken. For instance, developing countries’ budget systems were marked by disjointed budgets generated during the year. Similarly, the budget cycle deteriorated into a vicious circle when one group of participants routinely tried to pass on its vulnerabilities to another to the whole’s disadvantage (Rubin, 1990). The interplay of two factors, poverty and instability, which were sufficiently strong to overwhelm politics and governance issues, seemed to have a critical effect on budgetary decision-making.

The above trends can be supported by the descriptive theory of budgeting, which entails close observations on participation in public sector activities (Gibran and Sekwat, 2009). As a result of this, trends, the sequence of events, and inferences of causes are with local variations and uniformities across cases being paid attention. However, it is essential to note that the connection between budget hypothesis and practice has been diverse depending on the type of theory being reviewed. According to the normative theory, the budget approach has been generally successful than imagined setting attractive goals that guide behavior (Rubin, 1990). However, from a descriptive theory perspective, the budget theory has been weak and unable to theorize phenomena’ meaning.

References

Anyebe, A. A. (2018). An overview of approaches to the study of public policy. e-Bangi, 15(1).

Caiden, N. (1994). Budgeting in Historical and Comparative Perspective. Public Budgeting & Finance, 14(1), 44-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5850.00997

Gibran, J.M. and Sekwat, A. (2009), Continuing the Search for A Theory of Public Budgeting. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 617-644. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-21-04-2009-B005

Heinle, M. S., Ross, N., & Saouma, R. E. (2014). A theory of participative budgeting. The Accounting Review, 89(3), 1025-1050.

Ibrahim, M. (2013). Comparative Budgetary Approaches in Public Organizations. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 4(15), 88-98.

Kelly, J. M. (2015). Performance budgeting for state and local government. Me Sharpe.

Natchez, P., & Bupp, I. (1973). Policy and Priority in the Budgetary Process. The American Political Science Review, 67(3), 951-963. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958637

Rubin, I. S. (1990). Budget Theory and Budget Practice: How Good the Fit?
Public Administration Review, v50 n2 p179-89

Sandalgaard, N., & Bukh, P. N. (2014). Beyond Budgeting and Change: a case study. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change.

What is the role of budgeting in government fiscal management?,
How do line-item, program and performance budgeting affect the budgetary process?,
What is the impact of economic political, and social factors on budgeting?,
How do internal and external stakeholders influence the budgeting process?,
How has public budgeting evolved domestically and internationally?

January 23, 2026

Islamophobia Post-9/11

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Islamophobia Post-9/11

This literature review aims to evaluate contemporary literature on Islamophobia in the US to discover whether the Patriot Act has contributed to the rise of Islamophobia culture in the US post 9/11. Notably, modern literature was reviewed through the lens of media representation, law enforcement, and racial profiling. Several authors have studied the impact of the Patriotic Act on the Islamophobia culture in the US after the 9/11 events.

Postpositivism School of Thought

The aim of the study by Bukhari et al. (2019) was to examine the mechanism by which Western nations, including the US and their non-Muslim partners, propagate Islamophobia. Social constructivism theory was used to describe and process data (Bukhari et al., 2019). The research employed trivial data in written research papers, media articles, discussion papers, and speeches by prominent world leaders to create a case demonstrating how anti-Muslim feelings, bigotry, and hostility against Muslims were propagated in the West following 9/11.

Bukhari et al. (2019) observed that Islamophobia originated during the crusades when Christianity confronted Islam. Following the World Trade Center assault, the West twisted the idea and socialized its citizens about the fear and danger posed by Islam, which does not exist because radical Islam or a small number of non-practicing Muslims are not reflective of entire Muslim states (Bukhari et al. 2019; Aziz, 2011). As a result, America has developed the appearance of a police state, with government surveillance extending into almost every area of life.

Mir and Sarroub (2019) undertook an investigation of Islamophobia in US education. They reviewed news media outlets between 2015 and 2017 regarding Islamophobia and schools and discovered fifty-five documented cases of Islamophobia in the US and sixty-one cases in North America. They observed that media outlets had fueled general hatred, mistrust, and hostility against Muslims.

Similarly, Hamdan (2019) undertook a study to examine public dialogue on Islamic extremism in support of government control, discriminatory immigration protocols, and other deprivations of the US citizens’ statutory rights. The study evaluated culture conflicts, threatened legal protections, and Islamophobia conceptual rhetorical frameworks through the lens of Lakoff, Lyotard, and Said’s postmodern theories. Hamdan (2019) states that in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, politicians and broadcast experts used Islamophobia as a panic tool to validate public strategy creation. The article’s results indicated that supporters of the USA Patriot Act framed the debate around a Clash of Civilizations, pitting Western democracy advocates against extreme Muslim fanatics in campaigns for social reform.

Bazian (2018) acknowledges that Islamophobia arises from the conceptual forces of the Clash of Civilizations, not simply as a result of media stereotyping, representation, and overemphasis on the Muslim issue. It is perpetrated by the state’s institutions and apparatus, the right-wing, which includes the anti-jihad group, the opinionated movement, the universal Zionism campaign, and various progressive factions such as the left-wing and the new heathen activism.

Beydoun (2017) asserts that the rising Islamophobia is based on politics encouraged by deeply entrenched statutory and governmental frameworks in the US constitutional, media, and governmental structures. These structures fabricate Islam as un-democratic and Muslims as assumptive national safety risks. Second, it is facilitated by the extension of current legislation and strategy, which labels Islam as an authoritarian belief capable of extremism (Beydoun, 2017). Therefore, Esposito and Kalin (2011) are correct to observe that Islamophobia did not emerge overnight in the aftermath of 9/11. In several cases, 9/11’s trauma aided in bringing the issue to light.

The issue transcends 9/11 and the United States. Following the 9/11 events, US President Bush’s government chose to play the Islam card, focusing subsequent election efforts on a war on terror (Esposito & Kalin, 2011). Bush was always associating the Muslim world with terrorism and portraying it as a danger to the national safety of the American people.

According to Hassan (2017), Islamophobia is a well-documented characteristic of the Trump Administration. Trump expressed a national security issue through this Islamophobic lens, operationalizing a clash of civilizations rhetoric. Domestically, this manifested itself in ambiguous signs of creating a Muslim registry alongside unequivocal demands for a complete closure of Muslim immigration to the US. Trump sought to actualize these fears while in office by actively securitizing Islam (Hassan, 2017). Under the guise of Statutory Order 13769, safeguarding the country from overseas Terrorist Entry into the US, the Trump government attempted to impose a three-month travel embargo on citizens of seven Muslim-dominated nations.

Notably, digital scrutiny became a policy pillar of the local counterterrorism policy after 9/11 and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) development. The country’s Patriot Act sidestepped the Fourth Amendment in the interest of national security to promote the Bush government’s unparalleled inspection and religious characterization schemes (Beydoun, 2017). It did so by significantly limiting Muslim Americans’ First and Fourth Amendment protections. Surveilling Muslim targets and facilities such as mosques or neighborhood centers was an appropriate ancillary cost for the state to achieve specified national security objectives.

The majority of this group of authors belong to the far-right wing because their work more or less defends the American community from idealistic reforms or projects the idea of getting rid of previous reforms (Claassen et al., 2015).

Transformative School of Thought

Diamond (2007) explores the increasing fear and bigotry directed at Islam and Muslims in the US today. The paper focused primarily on the role that the mass media in the United States has played in either rising or decreasing Islamophobia among the American public in the post-9/11 era. The study drew data from political science publications, dispute resolution, international relations, psychology, anthropology, and personal interviews. Following 9/11, the mass media in the United States has continued to contribute to the growth of Islamophobia (Diamond, 2007). While it is unknown the medium has the most significant influence on the development and dissemination of derogatory perceptions about Muslims, Arabs, and the Islamic faith, it is clear that the mass media has a substantial impact on projecting and covering particular images and stories.

According to Beydoun (2016), nearly bisection of the Muslim US population is trapped amidst deprivation and Islamophobia. It is an intersection that exposes impoverished Muslim Americans to poverty-related struggles, the dangers posed by private and community Islamophobia, and the aggravated damage caused when the two collide. Poverty and Islamophobia do not exist in different rooms but rather coexist to wreak havoc in America’s most impoverished neighborhoods.

In a further analysis of Islamophobia, Istriyani (2016) observes that Islamophobia can be seen from two distinct perspectives: sociological and psychological, concerning the role of media. The media became the focus of analysis due to its dichotomous nature. The media can become the catalyst for the emergence of Islamophobia manifestation (latent duty). Contrary, the media is an information agent that serves as a conduit for education and social change (manifest functions) (Istriyani, 2016). Thus, the media may serve as a tool or tactic for overcoming Islamophobia by bringing together government, Islamic organizations, and higher education institutions.

Moreover, a growing number of Muslim people are displaced and seek refuge in the United States and elsewhere due to ongoing wars and conflicts in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and North Africa. It is all the more critical to dismantling persistent anti-Muslim sentiment, intervention, practice, and policy to introduce domestic and international solutions (Mir & Sarroub, 2019). Notably, education for all as a policy can keep operating in the United States only if democratic values governing education and human wellbeing are enacted, endorsed, and applied daily and across political and ideological divides.

Choudhury (2015) notes that, while right-wing Islamophobia is more visible and destructive, and progressives often criticize the conservative faction for their excessive discrimination, reformists engage in their forms of anti-Muslim bigotry that share fundamental roots. According to Choudhury (2015), becoming a Muslim in the new millennium means confronting multiple angles of individuality through imperialism, neocolonialism, and ethnicity, gender, and religious dissertation. She noted that Islamophobia portrays all Muslims’ input to the globe as a glorified classical history in sharp divergence to the current state of chaos.

The article by Akbar (2015) discusses the federal administration’s attempts to engage with US Muslim populations as a section of a broader framework for policing militancy and countering violent extremism (CVE). While the federal authority portrays society involvement as a gentler option to policing, the truth is much more coercive (Akbar, 2015). Community participation activities are staged against the backdrop of radicalization dialogue, counter-radicalization efforts, and CVE services.

According to Claassen et al. (2015), this group of authors can be categorized as liberals who want to keep things as they are and be free to change policies as and when due.

Pragmatism School of Thought

According to Samari (2016), Islamophobia’s recent growth necessitates a public health viewpoint that considers the designated nature of US Americans and the wellbeing consequences of Islamophobic prejudice. Samari (2016), using a context of reproach, bigotry, and wellbeing, extends the conversation about the advancement of Islamophobia to include an exchange of how Islamophobia impacts the wellbeing of US Americans.

Islamophobia can have a detrimental effect on wellbeing by disorganizing multiple structures, including particular systems via stress responsiveness and identity cover-up and relational systems via social connectedness and socialization. Similarly, organizational strategies and media consideration impact structural processes (Samari (2016). Islamophobia is deserving of thinking as a cause of adverse health effects and inequalities in health. Future public health studies should examine the multifaceted connections between Islamophobia and population health.

The study by Dauda (2020) discusses the patterns, triggers, consequences, and solutions of Islamophobia and religious bigotry on global peace and peaceful coexistence. It is based on content analysis of secondary data sources. Among the proposed remedies is the immediate need for religious leaders and adherents to change their attitudes (Dauda 2020). Global interfaith dialogue should be considered urgently, in which lingering problems concerning religion and the crises connected with it’ will be thoroughly addressed and significantly resolved.

Additionally, the United Nations and its Human Rights Council must be strengthened (Dauda 2020). Similarly, the media companies must be held accountable for normalizing Islamophobia, encouraging religious bigotry, and spreading false narratives about Islam and Muslims. The government must categorically condemn Islamophobia and religious intolerance.

According to Mir and Sarroub (2019), numerous student groups face prejudice, marginalization, and the genuine fear of being singled out as possible security threats. Young Muslim people in the United States of America who are still in school are often seen as a national security danger. Esposito and Kalin (2011) view education as vital in our colleges, universities, and seminaries (not just madrasas), as well as in our churches and synagogues, as it trains the next generation of policymakers, religious leaders, educators, and citizens.

In 2011, the Obama Administration launched a Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) initiative to address the root causes of domestic and international terrorism (Aziz, 2017). However, the Trump Administration announced in January 2017 that it would rename the program “Countering Islamic Extremism.” It reflects his administration’s plan to focus solely on massacres perpetrated by persons alleging to be Muslim while ignoring destruction perpetrated by others, such as white chauvinists (Aziz, 2017). Trump’s behavior merely confirmed what program opponents have been claiming all along. These CVE initiatives are inherently flawed for three reasons: ineffective, wasteful, and a waste of public funds.

Gould (2020) considers the unintended implications of current demands in the UK Parliament for a government-backed concept of Islamophobia. She claims that in conjunction with other attempts to control hate speech, the formulation and application of a government-sponsored term would result in unintended consequences for the Muslim community.

This group of authors can be categorized as leftists. They want to reform how power and wealth are distributed in society (Claassen et al., 2015). The majority have socialists and communist ideas of reforms through social economic and democratic means.

Conclusion of the Literature Review

Several significant points emerge from this literature review. The recent years has been a change in the essence of political commentaries in the United States about the Middle East and Islam. The pragmatism school of thought is selected because it details the right track towards solving policy implications of system-based Islamophobia. It ranges from those who avoided the cultural clash description and its Islamophobic ramifications. In the other schools of thought, government officials used fear of the Islamic rebel to garner popular support for their strategic agendas. Such constructs were transmissible in that they were centered on subjectively permeated rhetoric and hollow metaphors rather than on any relation to rational threats or detailed depictions of Islam.

PART II: Research Methodology

This research aims to understand if there is a link between the patriot act and the rise of Islamophobia post 9/11 attack. The study also purposes to link negative media representation, biased law enforcement, and a rise in racial profiling to Islamophobia witnessed post 9/11 attacks. The study will adopt a qualitative approach to evaluate US political rhetoric about Islam and Muslims in the post-9/11 era. Qualitative methods are most effective when the study objective represents the topic in a particular context instead of the universal or abstract generalizations that arise from quantitative statistical analysis.

Research Design

This research will employ a grounded theory research design, a formal methodology in the social sciences for developing theories through systematic data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2014). Unlike the scientific method’s hypothetical-deductive model, this method will employ inductive reasoning. Research using this approach is likely, to begin with, a query or even the collection of qualitative data (Creswell, 2014). As researchers study the concepts, recurring ideas, data collected, or items that have been derived from the data set become apparent and are coded. As more data is collected and analyzed, codes can be grouped into concepts and then classified.

. Notably, the narrative analysis approach will be used as well. This approach entails recreating the information provided by respondents by taking into account the context of each case and the unique circumstances surrounding each respondent (Creswell, 2014). The research will be carried out by using coding, which can be described as the grouping of data.

Data Collection

This study draws on primary and secondary sources such as interviews, observation, published research documents, news stories, conference papers, and comments by prominent world leaders (Creswell, 2014). Interviews will be conducted in an informal and structured manner. As part of my study, I will use an organized Skype interview with a political analyst. The interview will be taped and then transcribed, allowing the researcher to take notes while the interview continues uninterrupted. Moreover, it makes all data available for later study.

Data Analysis

This study will employ discourse analysis as it will aid in examining all forms of written text. Discourse examination is a type of study that concentrates on the connection between written or oral language and its social connotation (Creswell, 2014). It aims to gain an awareness of how language is used in everyday situations. A researcher’s investigative and critical thinking skills are essential in the analysis of information.

References

Akbar, A. (2015). National Security’s Broken Windows. UCLA L. Rev., 62, 833 http://www.uclalawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Akbar-final-article-5.29.15.pdf

Akbar, A. (2013). Policing Radicalization. UC Irvine L. Rev., 3, 809. https://www.ispu.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Policing_Radicalization.pdf

Aziz, S. F. (2017). Losing the War of Ideas: A Critique of Countering Violent Extremism Programs. Tex. Int’l LJ, 52, 255.https://scholarship.libraries.rutgers.edu/discovery/delivery?vid=01RUT_INST:ResearchRepository&repId=12643404870004646#13643520480004646

Aziz, S. F. (2011). Caught in a preventive dragnet: Selective counterterrorism in a post 9/11 America. Gonz. L. Rev., 47, 429

https://scholarship.libraries.rutgers.edu/discovery/delivery?vid=01RUT_INST:ResearchRepository&repId=12643394960004646#13643493140004646

Bazian, H. (2018). Islamophobia, “Clash of Civilizations”, and Forging a Post-Cold War Order!. Religions, 9(9), 282.https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d4e1/99b6fd27fef1532bb576c2e354fcb512d93c.pdf

Beydoun, K. A. (2017). Muslim Bans and the Re-Making of Political Islamophobia. Immigr. & Nat’lity L. Rev., 38, 37.

https://www.illinoislawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Beydoun.pdf

Beydoun, K. A. (2016). Between Indigence, Islamophobia, and Erasure: Poor and Muslim in War on Terror America. Calif. L. Rev., 104, 1463. http://www.californialawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/3-Beydoun.pdf

Bukhari, S. A. U. Z. H., Khan, H., Ali, T., & Ali, H. (2019). Islamophobia in the West and Post 9/11 Era. International Affairs and Global Strategy, 78, 23-32. https://core.ac.uk/reader/276531566

Claassen, C., Tucker, P., & Smith, S. S. (2015). Ideological labels in America. Political Behavior, 37(2), 253-278.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. SAGE publications.

Choudhury, C. A. (2015). Ideology, identity, and law in the production of Islamophobia. Dialectical Anthropology, 39(1), 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10624-014-9357-y

Diamond, M. M. N. (2007). Islamophobia and the US Media.

Do you believe that the Patriot Act contributed to the rise of Islamophobia in the United States after 9/11?,
How has media representation influenced perceptions of Islam and Muslims in the post-9/11 era?,
In what ways have law enforcement practices and racial profiling affected Muslim communities in the United States?,
How have political rhetoric and government policies shaped Islamophobia since 9/11?,
What research methodology is most appropriate for examining the relationship between the Patriot Act and Islamophobia, and why?

https://core.ac.uk/reader/45598220

Dauda, K. O. (2020). Islamophobia and Religious Intolerance: Threats to Global Peace and Harmonious Coexistence. QIJIS (Qudus International Journal of Islamic Studies), 8(2), 257-292. https://journal.iainkudus.ac.id/index.php/QIJIS/article/view/6811/pdf

Esposito, J. L., & Kalin, I. (Eds.). (2011). Islamophobia: The challenge of pluralism in the 21st century. OUP USA.

https://dlscrib.com/queue/islam-phobia-john-espostiso_58c9fa60ee34352a7768e338_pdf?queue_id=5a2237b7e2b6f5fc358c3dad

Gould, R. R. (2020). The limits of liberal inclusivity: how defining Islamophobia normalizes anti-muslim racism. Journal of Law and Religion, 35(2), 250-269.

https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2020.20

Hassan, O. (2017). Trump, Islamophobia and US–Middle East relations. Critical Studies on Security, 5(2), 187-191.https://core.ac.uk/reader/84340814

Hamdan, L. (2019). Framing Islamophobia and Civil Liberties: American Political Discourse Post 9/11. https://core.ac.uk/reader/217235887

Istriyani, R. (2016). Media: Causes and strategies to overcome Islamophobia (psychological and sociological study). QIJIS (Qudus International Journal of Islamic Studies), 4(2), 201-217.

https://core.ac.uk/reader/295525965

Mir, S., & Sarroub, L. K. (2019). Islamophobia in US education. https://core.ac.uk/reader/220153027

Samari, G. (2016). Islamophobia and public health in the United States. American journal of public health, 106(11), 1920-1925 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055770/

Do you believe that the Patriot Act contributed to the rise of Islamophobia in the United States after 9/11?,
How has media representation influenced perceptions of Islam and Muslims in the post-9/11 era?,
In what ways have law enforcement practices and racial profiling affected Muslim communities in the United States?,
How have political rhetoric and government policies shaped Islamophobia since 9/11?,
What research methodology is most appropriate for examining the relationship between the Patriot Act and Islamophobia, and why?

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